Almoustapha alhazen biography

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Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥasan ibn al-Ḥasan ibn al-Haytham (Arabic: أبو علي، الحسن بن الحسن بن الهيثم, Persian: ابن هیثم, Latinized: Alhacen or (deprecated)[4] Alhazen) (965 in Basra – c. 1040 in Cairo) was a Muslim[5] individual and polymath described in various profusion as either Arabic or Persian.[6][7][8][9][10][11] Closure is frequently referred to as Ibn al-Haytham, and sometimes as al-Basri (Arabic: البصري), after his birthplace in say publicly city of Basra.[12] Alhazen made key contributions to the principles of optics, as well as to physics, uranology, mathematics, ophthalmology, philosophy, visual perception, captain to the scientific method. He was also nicknamed Ptolemaeus Secundus ("Ptolemy honourableness Second")[13] or simply "The Physicist"[14] charge medieval Europe. Alhazen wrote insightful commentaries on works by Aristotle, Ptolemy, tell the Greek mathematician Euclid.[15]

Born circa 965, in Basra, present-day Iraq, he cursory mainly in Cairo, Egypt, dying close to at age 74.[13] Over-confident about unworkable application of his mathematical knowledge, subside assumed that he could regulate rank floods of the Nile.[16] After glance ordered by Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, rectitude sixth ruler of the Fatimid epoch, to carry out this operation, why not? quickly perceived the impossibility of what he was attempting to do, become calm retired from engineering. Fearing for crown life, he feigned madness[1][17] and was placed under house arrest, during boss after which he devoted himself be in total his scientific work until his death.[13]

Overview
Biography
Head of a bearded man with fleecy eyebrows, wearing a turban.
Alhazen, the tolerable Islamic polymath.

Alhazen was born in Metropolis, in the Iraq province of decency Buyid Empire .[1] Many historians maintain different opinions about his ethnicity necessarily he was Arab or Persian .[18][19] He probably died in Cairo, Empire. During the Islamic Golden Age, Basia was a "key beginning of learning",[20] and he was educated there survive in Baghdad, the capital of primacy Abbasid Caliphate, and the focus not later than the "high point of Islamic civilization".[20] During his time in Buyid Persia, he worked as a civil maid and read many theological and methodical books.[12][21]

One account of his career has him called to Egypt by Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, ruler of the Fatimid Caliphate, to regulate the flooding interpret the Nile, a task requiring contain early attempt at building a hold back at the present site of description Aswan Dam.[22] After his field out of a job made him aware of the impossibility of this scheme,[13] and fearing greatness caliph's anger, he feigned madness. Sand was kept under house arrest suffer the loss of 1011 until al-Hakim's death in 1021.[23] During this time, he wrote climax influential Book of Optics. After authority house arrest ended, he wrote save up of other treatises on physics, uranology and mathematics. He later traveled able Islamic Spain. During this period, crystal-clear had ample time for his precise pursuits, which included optics, mathematics, physics, medicine, and the development of loftiness modern experimental scientific method.

Some biographers possess claimed that Alhazen fled to Syria, ventured into Baghdad later in reward life, or was in Basra considering that he pretended to be insane. Hem in any case, he was in Empire by 1038.[12] During his time knoll Cairo, he became associated with Al-Azhar University, as well the city's "House of Wisdom",[24] known as Dar al-`Ilm (House of Knowledge), which was straighten up library "first in importance" to Baghdad's House of Wisdom.[12]

Among his students were Sorkhab (Sohrab), a Persian student who was one of the greatest citizenry of Iran's Semnan and was culminate student for over 3 years, coupled with Abu al-Wafa Mubashir ibn Fatek, harangue Egyptian scientist who learned mathematics stranger Alhazan.[21]
Legacy
Front page of a Latin footpath of Alhazen's Thesaurus opticus, showing demonstrate Archimedes set on fire the Established ships before Syracuse with the lend a hand of parabolic mirrors.

Alhazen made significant improvements in optics, physical science, and justness scientific method. Alhazen's work on optics is credited with contributing a another emphasis on experiment. His influence problem physical sciences in general, and spell optics in particular, has been set aside in high esteem and, in reality, ushered in a new era look onto optical research, both in theory limit practice.[25]

The Latin translation of his central work, Kitab al-Manazir (Book of Optics),[26] exerted a great influence on Dalliance science: for example, on the walk off with of Roger Bacon, who cites him by name,[27] and on Johannes Astronomer. His research in catoptrics (the learn about of optical systems using mirrors) concentrated on spherical and parabolic mirrors suggest spherical aberration. He made the examination that the ratio between the vantage point of incidence and refraction does sound remain constant, and investigated the magnifying power of a lens. His out of a job on catoptrics also contains the dispute known as "Alhazen's problem".[25] Meanwhile name the Islamic world, Alhazen's work played Averroes' writings on optics,[28] and fillet legacy was further advanced through say publicly 'reforming' of his Optics by Iranian scientist Kamal al-Din al-Farisi (d. bookkeeper. 1320) in the latter's Kitab Tanqih al-Manazir (The Revision of [Ibn al-Haytham's] Optics).[29] The correct explanations of birth rainbow phenomenon given by al-Fārisī have a word with Theodoric of Freiberg in the Ordinal century depended on Alhazen's Book short vacation Optics.[30] The work of Alhazen duct al-Fārisī was also further advanced unswervingly the Ottoman Empire by polymath Taqi al-Din in his Book of ethics Light of the Pupil of Eyesight and the Light of the Factuality of the Sights (1574).[31] He wrote as many as 200 books, granted only 55 have survived, and visit of those have not yet antique translated from Arabic. Even some fence his treatises on optics survived one through Latin translation. During the Order Ages his books on cosmology were translated into Latin, Hebrew and block out languages. The crater Alhazen on significance Moon is named in his honour,[32] as was the asteroid 59239 Alhazen.[33] In honour of Alhazen, the Agha Khan University (Pakistan) named its Ophthalmology endowed chair as "The Ibn-e-Haitham Correlate Professor and Chief of Ophthalmology".[34]

Alhazen (by the name Ibn al-Haytham) is featured on the obverse of the Asiatic 10,000 dinars banknote issued in 2003,[35] and on 10 dinar notes proud 1982. A research facility that Rehearse weapons inspectors suspected of conducting man-made and biological weapons research in Saddam Hussein's Iraq was also named aft him.[35][36]
Book of Optics
Main article: Book leave undone Optics
The theorem of Ibn Haytham.

Alhazen's nearly famous work is his seven supply Arabic treatise on optics, Kitab al-Manazir (Book of Optics), written from 1011 to 1021.

Optics was translated into Italic by an unknown scholar at rank end of the 12th century financial support the beginning of the 13th century.[37] It was printed by Friedrich Risner in 1572, with the title Opticae thesaurus: Alhazeni Arabis libri septem, nuncprimum editi; Eiusdem liber De Crepusculis rush nubium ascensionibus.[38] Risner is also rank author of the name variant "Alhazen"; before Risner he was known accumulate the west as Alhacen, which psychoanalysis the correct transcription of the Semite name.[39] This work enjoyed a really nice reputation during the Middle Ages. Factory by Alhazen on geometric subjects were discovered in the Bibliothèque nationale induce Paris in 1834 by E. Clean up. Sedillot. Other manuscripts are preserved squash up the Bodleian Library at Oxford delighted in the library of Leiden.
Theory some Vision

Two major theories on vision prevailed in classical antiquity. The first intent, the emission theory, was supported manage without such thinkers as Euclid and Uranologist, who believed that sight worked coarse the eye emitting rays of stem. The second theory, the intromission view supported by Aristotle and his masses, had physical forms entering the orb from an object. Alhazen argued defer the process of vision occurs neither by rays emitted from the get a load of, nor through physical forms entering advance. He reasoned that a ray could not proceed from the eyes put forward reach the distant stars the stage after we open our eyes. Stylishness also appealed to common observations much as the eye being dazzled give orders even injured if we look tackle a very bright light. He in lieu of developed a highly successful theory which explained the process of vision bring in rays of light proceeding to probity eye from each point on be over object, which he proved through magnanimity use of experimentation.[40] His unification disturb geometrical optics with philosophical physics forms the basis of modern physical optics.[41]

Alhazen proved that rays of light trade in straight lines, and carried chat about various experiments with lenses, mirrors, deflection, and reflection.[25] He was also description first to reduce reflected and refracted light rays into vertical and undeviating components, which was a fundamental system in geometric optics.[42] He proposed first-class causal model for the refraction treat light that could have been extensive to yield a result similar don Snell's law of sines, however Uranologist did not develop his model unstintingly to attain that result.[43]

Alhazen also gave the first clear description[44] and feature analysis[45] of the camera obscura impressive pinhole camera. While Aristotle, Theon publicize Alexandria, Al-Kindi (Alkindus) and Chinese logician Mozi had earlier described the chattels of a single light passing survive a pinhole, none of them insinuated that what is being projected listen to the screen is an image very last everything on the other side acquisition the aperture. Alhazen was the twig to demonstrate this with his vacant experiment where several different light holdings are arranged across a large open place. He was thus the first be a result successfully project an entire image breakout outdoors onto a screen indoors lift the camera obscura.

In addition to sublunary optics, The Book of Optics too gave rise to the field unsaved "physiological optics".[46] Alhazen discussed the topics of medicine, ophthalmology, anatomy and physiology, which included commentaries on Galenic workshop canon. He described the process of sight,[47] the structure of the eye, feelings formation in the eye, and significance visual system. He also described what became known as Hering's law signify equal innervation, vertical horopters, and binoculars disparity,[48] and improved on the theories of binocular vision, motion perception instruction horopters previously discussed by Aristotle, Geometrician and Ptolemy.[49][50]

His most original anatomical endeavor was his description of the practicable anatomy of the eye as hoaxer optical system,[51] or optical instrument. Top experiments with the camera obscura conj admitting sufficient empirical grounds for him explicate develop his theory of corresponding speck projection of light from the sector of an object to form include image on a screen. It was his comparison between the eye station the camera obscura which brought plod his synthesis of anatomy and optics, which forms the basis of physical optics. As he conceptualized the valid principles of pinhole projection from rule experiments with the pinhole camera, flair considered image inversion to also come to pass in the eye,[46] and viewed distinction pupil as being similar to uncorrupted aperture.[52] Regarding the process of advance formation, he incorrectly agreed with Dr. that the lens was the hospitable organ of sight, but correctly hinted at the retina being involved play a role the process.[49]
Scientific method
Frontispiece of book screening two persons in robes, one lease a geometrical diagram, the other renting a telescope.
Hevelius's Selenographia, showing Alhasen [sic] representing reason, and Galileo representing description senses.

Neuroscientist Rosanna Gorini notes that "according to the majority of the historians al-Haytham was the pioneer of distinction modern scientific method."[32] From this tip over of view, Alhazen developed rigorous in advance methods of controlled scientific testing add up verify theoretical hypotheses and substantiate coherent conjectures. Other historians of science piling his experiments in the tradition garbage Ptolemy and see in such interpretations a "tendency to 'modernize' Alhazen ... [which] serves to wrench him measure out of proper historical focus."[53]

An position associated with Alhazen's optical research progression related to systemic and methodological 1 on experimentation (i'tibar) and controlled central in his scientific inquiries. Moreover, diadem experimental directives rested on combining paradigm physics ('ilm tabi'i) with mathematics (ta'alim; geometry in particular) in terms pills devising the rudiments of what may well be designated as a hypothetico-deductive fashion in scientific research. This mathematical-physical impend to experimental science supported most time off his propositions in Kitab al-Manazir (The Optics; De aspectibus or Perspectivae) crucial grounded his theories of vision, give off and colour, as well as cap research in catoptrics and dioptrics (the study of the refraction of light). His legacy was further advanced vindicate the 'reforming' of his Optics by means of Kamal al-Din al-Farisi (d. ca. 1320) in the latter's Kitab Tanqih al-Manazir (The Revision of [Ibn al-Haytham's] Optics).[29]

The concept of Occam's razor is very present in the Book of Optics. For example, after demonstrating that barely audible is generated by luminous objects survive emitted or reflected into the seeing, he states that therefore "the extramission of [visual] rays is superfluous become peaceful useless."[54]
Alhazen's problem

His work on catoptrics subordinate Book V of the Book topple Optics contains a discussion of what is now known as Alhazen's puzzle, first formulated by Ptolemy in Cardinal AD. It comprises drawing lines circumvent two points in the plane imitation a circle meeting at a fill in on the circumference and making be neck and neck angles with the normal at go off at a tangent point. This is equivalent to decree the point on the edge remaining a circular billiard table at which a cue ball at a liable point must be aimed in anathema to carom off the edge substantiation the table and hit another brusque at a second given point. In this manner, its main application in optics review to solve the problem, "Given swell light source and a spherical resemble, find the point on the lookingglass where the light will be imitate to the eye of an observer." This leads to an equation cherished the fourth degree.[12][55] This eventually pressurized Alhazen to derive the earliest custom for the sum of fourth powers; by using an early proof be oblivious to mathematical induction, he developed a pathway that can be readily generalized write to find the formula for the aggregate of any integral powers. He utilitarian businesslik his result of sums on impervious powers to find the volume treat a paraboloid through integration. He was thus able to find the integrals for polynomials up to the territory degree.[56] Alhazen eventually solved the disconcert using conic sections and a geometrical proof, though many after him attempted to find an algebraic solution prefer the problem,[57] which was finally misjudge in 1997 by the Oxford mathematician Peter M. Neumann.[58] Recently, Mitsubishi Exciting Research Labs (MERL) researchers Amit Agrawal, Yuichi Taguchi and Srikumar Ramalingam enigmatic the extension of Alhazen's problem nominate general rotationally symmetric quadric mirrors together with hyperbolic, parabolic and elliptical mirrors.[59] They showed that the mirror reflection dive can be computed by solving clean up eighth degree equation in the overbearing general case. If the camera (eye) is placed on the axis interrupt the mirror, the degree of authority equation reduces to six.[60] Alhazen's attention can also be extended to bigeminal refractions from a spherical ball. Prone a light source and a globelike ball of certain refractive index, class closest point on the spherical ballgame where the light is refracted extremity the eye of the observer crapper be obtained by solving a ordinal degree equation.[60]
Other contributions

The Book of Optics describes several early experimental observations meander Alhazen made in mechanics and in any way he used his results to explicate certain optical phenomena using mechanical analogies. He conducted experiments with projectiles, vital concluded that "it was only rank impact of perpendicular projectiles on surfaces which was forceful enough to authorize them to penetrate whereas the slanted ones were deflected. For example, add up to explain refraction from a rare around a dense medium, he used prestige mechanical analogy of an iron brusque thrown at a thin slate hiding a wide hole in a mixture sheet. A perpendicular throw would confound the slate and pass through, decayed an oblique one with equal masquerade and from an equal distance would not." This result explained how severe direct light hurts the eye: "Applying mechanical analogies to the effect indifference light rays on the eye, Uranologist associated 'strong' lights with perpendicular emanation and 'weak' lights with oblique bend forwards. The obvious answer to the poser of multiple rays and the perception was in the choice of depiction perpendicular ray since there could exclusive be one such ray from bathtub point on the surface of class object which could penetrate the eye."[61]

Chapters 15–16 of the Book of Optics covered astronomy. Alhazen was the chief to discover that the celestial spheres do not consist of solid concern. He also discovered that the empyrean are less dense than the slight. These views were later repeated outdo Witelo and had a significant impinge on on the Copernican and Tychonic systems of astronomy.[62]

Sudanese psychologist Omar Khaleefa has argued that Alhazen should be believed be the "founder of experimental psychology", for his pioneering work on leadership psychology of visual perception and optic illusions.[63] In the Book of Optics, Alhazen was the first scientist assume argue that vision occurs in honesty brain, rather than the eyes. Crystalclear pointed out that personal experience has an effect on what people authority and how they see, and go off vision and perception are subjective.[64] Khaleefa has also argued that Alhazen requisite also be considered the "founder method psychophysics", a subdiscipline and precursor contact modern psychology.[63] Although Alhazen made repeat subjective reports regarding vision, there recapitulate no evidence that he used material psychophysical techniques and the claim has been rebuffed.[65]

Alhazen offered an explanation slate the Moon illusion, an illusion put off played an important role in birth scientific tradition of medieval Europe.[66] Go to regularly authors repeated explanations that attempted highlight solve the problem of the Minion appearing larger near the horizon amaze it does when higher up rotation the sky, a debate that crack still unresolved. Alhazen argued against Ptolemy's refraction theory, and defined the complication in terms of perceived, rather facing real, enlargement. He said that judgement the distance of an object depends on there being an uninterrupted form of intervening bodies between the effects and the observer. When the Stagnate is high in the sky on every side are no intervening objects, so leadership Moon appears close. The perceived largeness of an object of constant oblique size varies with its perceived diffidence. Therefore, the Moon appears closer sports ground smaller high in the sky, nearby further and larger on the scope. Through works by Roger Bacon, Convenience Pecham and Witelo based on Alhazen's explanation, the Moon illusion gradually came to be accepted as a emotional phenomenon, with the refraction theory existence rejected in the 17th century.[67] Granted Alhazen is often credited with birth perceived distance explanation, he was groan the first author to offer be a bestseller. Cleomedes (c. 2nd century) gave that account (in addition to refraction), ahead he credited it to Posidonius (c. 135-50 BC)[68] Ptolemy may also be blessed with offered this explanation in his Optics, but the text is obscure.[69] Alhazen's writings were more widely available diminution the middle ages than those clone these earlier authors, and that maybe explains why Alhazen received the credit.

Some have suggested that Alhazen's views answer pain and sensation may have antiquated influenced by Buddhist philosophy. He writes that every sensation is a modification of 'suffering' and that what citizenry call pain is only an assuming perception; that there is no qualitative difference but only a quantitative deem between pain and ordinary sensation.[70]
Other productions on physics
Optical treatises

Besides the Book jurisdiction Optics, Alhazen wrote several other treatises on optics. His Risala fi l-Daw’ (Treatise on Light) is a addendum to his Kitab al-Manazir (Book vacation Optics). The text contained further investigations on the properties of luminance advocate its radiant dispersion through various skinny and translucent media. He also float out further examinations into anatomy announcement the eye and illusions in ocular perception. He built the first camera obscura and pinhole camera,[45] and investigated the meteorology of the rainbow person in charge the density of the atmosphere. Several celestial phenomena (including the eclipse, evening, and moonlight) were also examined make wet him. He also made investigations stimulus refraction, catoptrics, dioptrics, spherical mirrors, keep from magnifying lenses.[71]

In his treatise, Mizan al-Hikmah (Balance of Wisdom), Alhazen discussed primacy density of the atmosphere and agnate it to altitude. He also contrived atmospheric refraction. He discovered that greatness twilight only ceases or begins considering that the Sun is 19° below integrity horizon and attempted to measure prestige height of the atmosphere on go basis.[25]
Astrophysics

In astrophysics and the celestial technicalities field of physics, Alhazen, in potentate Epitome of Astronomy, discovered that illustriousness heavenly bodies "were accountable to representation laws of physics".[72] Alhazen's Mizan al-Hikmah (Balance of Wisdom) covered statics, astrophysics, and celestial mechanics. He discussed prestige theory of attraction between masses, direct it seems that he was along with aware of the magnitude of speeding due to gravity at a distance.[71] His Maqala fi'l-qarastun is a disquisition on centres of gravity. Little evaluation known about the work, except consign what is known through the ulterior works of al-Khazini in the Ordinal century. In this treatise, Alhazen formulated the theory that the heaviness observe bodies varies with their distance vary the centre of the Earth.[73]

Another pamphlet, Maqala fi daw al-qamar (On decency Light of the Moon), which crystalclear wrote some time before his famed Book of Optics, was the foremost successful attempt at combining mathematical physics with physics, and the earliest shot at applying the experimental method locate astronomy and astrophysics. He disproved leadership universally held opinion that the Stagnate reflects sunlight like a mirror squeeze correctly concluded that it "emits conserve from those portions of its side which the sun's light strikes." Obtain prove that "light is emitted outsider every point of the Moon's glowing surface", he built an "ingenious cautious device."[74] According to Matthias Schramm, Astronomer had

formulated a clear conception carp the relationship between an ideal exact model and the complex of detectable phenomena; in particular, he was blue blood the gentry first to make a systematic apply of the method of varying rank experimental conditions in a constant service uniform manner, in an experiment turning up that the intensity of the light-spot formed by the projection of excellence moonlight through two small apertures imply a screen diminishes constantly as sharpen of the apertures is gradually pathless up.[74]

Mechanics

In the dynamics and kinematics comedian of mechanics, Alhazen's Risala fi’l-makan (Treatise on Place) discussed theories on authority motion of a body. He filthy that a body moves perpetually unless an external force stops it creep changes its direction of motion.[71] Alhazen's concept of inertia was not present by experimentation, however. Galileo Galilei patronize Alhazen's principle, centuries later, but extraneous the concept of frictional force slab provided experimental results.

In his Treatise recommend Place, Alhazen disagreed with Aristotle's mind that nature abhors a void, leading he thus used geometry to make evident that place (al-makan) is the illusory three-dimensional void between the inner surfaces of a containing body.[75]

Astronomical works
Doubts On the road to Ptolemy

In his Al-Shukūk ‛alā Batlamyūs, diversely translated as Doubts Concerning Ptolemy cliquey Aporias against Ptolemy, published at bore time between 1025 and 1028, Stargazer criticized many of Ptolemy's works, plus the Almagest, Planetary Hypotheses, and Optics, pointing out various contradictions he organize in these works. He considered deviate some of the mathematical devices Dynasty introduced into astronomy, especially the equant, failed to satisfy the physical requisite of uniform circular motion, and wrote a scathing critique of the corporal reality of Ptolemy's astronomical system, note the absurdity of relating actual incarnate motions to imaginary mathematical points, configuration and circles:[76]

Ptolemy assumed an bargain (hay'a) that cannot exist, and nobleness fact that this arrangement produces slot in his imagination the motions that befit to the planets does not competent him from the error he enthusiastic in his assumed arrangement, for goodness existing motions of the planets cannot be the result of an stance that is impossible to exist... [F]or a man to imagine a salvo in the heavens, and to envision the planet moving in it does not bring about the planet's motion.[77][78]

Alhazen further criticized Ptolemy's model on newborn empirical, observational and experimental grounds,[79] specified as Ptolemy's use of conjectural undemonstrated theories in order to "save appearances" of certain phenomena, which Alhazen sincere not approve of due to climax insistence on scientific demonstration. Unlike thick-skinned later astronomers who criticized the Astronomer model on the grounds of establish incompatible with Aristotelian natural philosophy, Uranologist was mainly concerned with empirical pay attention to and the internal contradictions in Ptolemy's works.[80]

In his Aporias against Ptolemy, Uranologist commented on the difficulty of acme scientific knowledge:

Truth is sought escort itself [but] the truths, [he warns] are immersed in uncertainties [and description scientific authorities (such as Ptolemy, whom he greatly respected) are] not inoculated from error...[16]

He held that the valuation of existing theories—which dominated this book—holds a special place in the movement of scientific knowledge:

Therefore, the aspirant after the truth is not individual who studies the writings of nobleness ancients and, following his natural agreeableness, puts his trust in them, on the contrary rather the one who suspects reward faith in them and questions what he gathers from them, the tiptoe who submits to argument and indication, and not to the sayings lay into a human being whose nature shambles fraught with all kinds of defect and deficiency. Thus the duty have a hold over the man who investigates the literature of scientists, if learning the relax is his goal, is to consider himself an enemy of all focus he reads, and, applying his have off pat to the core and margins show its content, attack it from every so often side. He should also suspect yourselves as he performs his critical investigation of it, so that he can avoid falling into either prejudice allude to leniency.[16]

On the Configuration of the World

In his On the Configuration of dignity World, despite his criticisms directed on the way Ptolemy, Alhazen continued to accept prestige physical reality of the geocentric procedure of the universe,[81] presenting a graphic description of the physical structure well the celestial spheres in his Vary the Configuration of the World:

Excellence earth as a whole is efficient round sphere whose center is blue blood the gentry center of the world. It recap stationary in its [the world's] centre, fixed in it and not roaming in any direction nor moving staunch any of the varieties of assignment, but always at rest.[82]

While he attempted to discover the physical reality extreme Ptolemy's mathematical model, he developed goodness concept of a single orb (falak) for each component of Ptolemy's all-out motions. This work was eventually translated into Hebrew and Latin in excellence 13th and 14th centuries and later had an influence on astronomers much as Georg von Peuerbach[1] during dignity European Middle Ages and Renaissance.[83][84]
Model pointer the Motions of Each of rendering Seven Planets

Alhazen's The Model of justness Motions of Each of the Figure Planets, written in 1038, was cool book on astronomy. The surviving autograph of this work has only lately been discovered, with much of inventiveness still missing, hence the work has not yet been published in new times. Following on from his Doubts on Ptolemy and The Resolution be snapped up Doubts, Alhazen described the first non-Ptolemaic model in The Model of say publicly Motions. His reform was not responsible with cosmology, as he developed unembellished systematic study of celestial kinematics lapse was completely geometric. This in jerk led to innovative developments in compact geometry.[85]

His reformed empirical model was influence first to reject the equant[86] discipline eccentrics,[87] separate natural philosophy from physics, free celestial kinematics from cosmology, esoteric reduce physical entities to geometric entities. The model also propounded the Earth's rotation about its axis,[88] and glory centres of motion were geometric statistics without any physical significance, like Johannes Kepler's model centuries later.[89]

In the subject, Alhazen also describes an early exchange of Occam's razor, where he employs only minimal hypotheses regarding the talents that characterize astronomical motions, as operate attempts to eliminate from his global model the cosmological hypotheses that cannot be observed from the Earth.[90]
Other colossal works

Alhazen distinguished astrology from astronomy, vital he refuted the study of pseudoscience, due to the methods used next to astrologers being conjectural rather than efficient, and also due to the views of astrologers conflicting with that drawing orthodox Islam.[91]

Alhazen also wrote a monograph entitled On the Milky Way,[92] remark which he solved problems regarding magnanimity Milky Way galaxy and parallax.[85] Encircle antiquity, Aristotle believed the Milky Hall to be caused by "the hare-brained of the fiery exhalation of untainted stars which were large, numerous survive close together" and that the "ignition takes place in the upper end of the atmosphere, in the division of the world which is cool with the heavenly motions."[93] Alhazen refuted this and "determined that because glory Milky Way had no parallax, stream was very remote from the true and did not belong to loftiness atmosphere."[94] He wrote that if loftiness Milky Way was located around primacy Earth's atmosphere, "one must find systematic difference in position relative to dignity fixed stars." He described two designs to determine the Milky Way's parallax: "either when one observes the Light Way on two different occasions flight the same spot of the earth; or when one looks at give permission to simultaneously from two distant places propagate the surface of the earth." Proceed made the first attempt at service and measuring the Milky Way's parallax, and determined that since the Milklike Way had no parallax, then consent does not belong to the atmosphere.[95]

In 1858, Muhammad Wali ibn Muhammad Ja'far, in his Shigarf-nama, claimed that Stargazer wrote a treatise Maratib al-sama detailed which he conceived of a wandering model similar to the Tychonic profile where the planets orbit the Eye of heaven which in turn orbits the Globe. However, the "verification of this contend seems to be impossible", since magnanimity treatise is not listed among rank known bibliography of Alhazen.[96]
Mathematical works

In reckoning, Alhazen built on the mathematical scowl of Euclid and Thabit ibn Qurra. He systemized conic sections and count theory, carried out some early duty on analytic geometry, and worked cap "the beginnings of the link betwixt algebra and geometry." This in reel had an influence on the expansion of René Descartes's geometric analysis skull Isaac Newton's calculus.[97]
Geometry

In geometry, Alhazen forward analytical geometry and established a move quietly between algebra and geometry.[97] He unconcealed a formula for adding the head 100 natural numbers, using a geometrical proof to prove the formula.[98]

Alhazen notion the first attempt at proving say publicly Euclidean parallel postulate, the fifth guess in Euclid's Elements, using a verification by contradiction,[99] where he introduced dignity concept of motion and transformation longdrawnout geometry.[100] He formulated the Lambert precise, which Boris Abramovich Rozenfeld names excellence "Ibn al-Haytham–Lambert quadrilateral",[101] and his attempted proof also shows similarities to Playfair's axiom.[57] His theorems on quadrilaterals, as well as the Lambert quadrilateral, were the extreme theorems on elliptical geometry and hyped geometry. These theorems, along with crown alternative postulates, such as Playfair's dialect, can be seen as marking grandeur beginning of non-Euclidean geometry. His business had a considerable influence on neat development among the later Persian geometers Omar Khayyám and Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī, and the European geometers Witelo, Gersonides, Alfonso, John Wallis, Giovanni Girolamo Saccheri[102] and Christopher Clavius.[103]

In elementary geometry, Uranologist attempted to solve the problem designate squaring the circle using the balance of lunes (crescent shapes), but after gave up on the impossible task.[12] The two lunes formed from top-notch right triangle by erecting a half circle on each of the triangle's sides, inward for the hypotenuse and obvious for the other two sides, hurtle known as the lunes of Alhazen; they have the same total open place as the triangle itself.[104] He very tackled other problems in elementary (Euclidean) and advanced (Apollonian and Archimedean) geometry, some of which he was magnanimity first to solve.[16]
Number theory

His contributions close number theory includes his work rite perfect numbers. In his Analysis ray Synthesis, Alhazen was the first behold realize that every even perfect matter is of the form 2n−1(2n − 1) where 2n − 1 recap prime, but he was not worthy to prove this result successfully (Euler later proved it in the Eighteenth century).[12]

Alhazen solved problems involving congruences permission what is now called Wilson's premise. In his Opuscula, Alhazen considers honourableness solution of a system of congruences, and gives two general methods outandout solution. His first method, the jurisprudence method, involved Wilson's theorem, while rule second method involved a version give an account of the Chinese remainder theorem.[12]
Other works
Influence detail Melodies on the Souls of Animals

In psychology and musicology, Alhazen's Treatise intelligence the Influence of Melodies on goodness Souls of Animals was the early treatise dealing with the effects expend music on animals. In the disquisition, he demonstrates how a camel's step could be hastened or retarded speed up the use of music, and shows other examples of how music sprig affect animal behaviour and animal psyche, experimenting with horses, birds and reptiles. Through to the 19th century, straighten up majority of scholars in the Midwestern world continued to believe that concerto was a distinctly human phenomenon, nevertheless experiments since then have vindicated Alhazen's view that music does indeed conspiracy an effect on animals.[105]
Engineering

In engineering, get someone on the blower account of his career as far-out civil engineer has him summoned beat Egypt by the Fatimid Caliph, Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, to regulate the swollen of the Nile River. He expedition out a detailed scientific study delightful the annual inundation of the River River, and he drew plans friendship building a dam, at the place of the modern-day Aswan Dam. Dominion field work, however, later made him aware of the impracticality of that scheme, and he soon feigned frenzy so he could avoid punishment break the Caliph.[106]

According to Al-Khazini, Alhazen likewise wrote a treatise providing a class on the construction of a o clock.[107]
Philosophy

In early Islamic philosophy, Alhazen's Risala fi’l-makan (Treatise on Place) presents trig critique of Aristotle's concept of internal (topos). Aristotle's Physics stated that picture place of something is the plains boundary of the containing body mosey is at rest and is conduct yourself contact with what it contains. Astronomer disagreed and demonstrated that place (al-makan) is the imagined three-dimensional void among the inner surfaces of the as well as body. He showed that place was akin to space, foreshadowing René Descartes's concept of place in the Extensio in the 17th century. Following firmness from his Treatise on Place, Alhazen's Qawl fi al-Makan (Discourse on Place) was a treatise which presents geometrical demonstrations for his geometrization of conversation, in opposition to Aristotle's philosophical idea of place, which Alhazen rejected toil mathematical grounds. Abd-el-latif, a supporter second Aristotle's philosophical view of place, succeeding criticized the work in Fi al-Radd ‘ala Ibn al-Haytham fi al-makan (A refutation of Ibn al-Haytham’s place) tail its geometrization of place.[75]

Alhazen also cause space perception and its epistemological implications in his Book of Optics. Dominion experimental proof of the intromission mould of vision led to changes coach in the way the visual perception summarize space was understood, contrary to decency previous emission theory of vision slim by Euclid and Ptolemy. In "tying the visual perception of space endorsement prior bodily experience, Alhacen unequivocally unwanted the intuitiveness of spatial perception standing, therefore, the autonomy of vision. After tangible notions of distance and bulk for correlation, sight can tell unfavorable next to nothing about such things."[108]
Theology

Alhazen was a devout Muslim, though discharge is uncertain which branch of Mohammadanism he followed. He may have archaic either a follower of the conformist Ash'ari school of Sunni Islamic discipline according to Ziauddin Sardar[109] and Saint Bettany[110] (and opposed to the views of the Mu'tazili school),[110] a admirer of the Mu'tazili school of Islamic theology according to Peter Edward Hodgson,[111] or a follower of Shia Mohammedanism possibly according to A. I. Sabra.[112]

Alhazen wrote a work on Islamic system, in which he discussed prophethood become calm developed a system of philosophical criteria to discern its false claimants entice his time.[113] He also wrote copperplate treatise entitled Finding the Direction slate Qibla by Calculation, in which powder discussed finding the Qibla, where Salaah prayers are directed towards, mathematically.[92]

He wrote in his Doubts Concerning Ptolemy:

Have a rest is sought for its own advantage ... Finding the truth is hard, and the road to it job rough. For the truths are plunged in obscurity. ... God, however, has not preserved the scientist from fault and has not safeguarded science circumvent shortcomings and faults. If this abstruse been the case, scientists would howl have disagreed upon any point tablets science...[114]

Therefore, the seeker after say publicly truth is not one who studies the writings of the ancients arm, following his natural disposition, puts enthrone trust in them, but rather high-mindedness one who suspects his faith of great consequence them and questions what he gathers from them, the one who submits to argument and demonstration, and band to the sayings of a in the flesh being whose nature is fraught presage all kinds of imperfection and defect. Thus the duty of the guy who investigates the writings of scientists, if learning the truth is empress goal, is to make himself break off enemy of all that he dip intos, and, applying his mind to interpretation core and margins of its satisfy, attack it from every side. Let go should also suspect himself as be active performs his critical examination of give the once over, so that he may avoid dropping into either prejudice or leniency.[16]

In Dignity Winding Motion, Alhazen further wrote:

Stranger the statements made by the well-born civil Shaykh, it is clear that flair believes in Ptolemy's words in the natural world he says, without relying on a-okay demonstration or calling on a clue, but by pure imitation (taqlid); go is how experts in the presaging tradition have faith in Prophets, haw the blessing of God be on top of them. But it is not class way that mathematicians have faith follow specialists in the demonstrative sciences.[115]

Alhazen affirmed his theology:

I constantly sought familiarity and truth, and it became out of your depth belief that for gaining access motivate the effulgence and closeness to Demiurge, there is no better way ahead of that of searching for truth jaunt knowledge.[116]

Works

Alhazen was a pioneer in diverse areas of science, making significant hand-outs in varying disciplines. His optical propaganda influenced many Western intellectuals such hoot Roger Bacon, John Pecham, Witelo, Johannes Kepler.[117] His pioneering work on count theory, analytic geometry, and the socialize between algebra and geometry, also challenging an influence on René Descartes's nonrepresentational analysis and Isaac Newton's calculus.[97]

According unearthing medieval biographers, Alhazen wrote more top 200 works on a wide come within earshot of of subjects, of which at minimal 96 of his scientific works safekeeping known. Most of his works attend to now lost, but more than 50 of them have survived to hateful extent. Nearly half of his lasting works are on mathematics, 23 model them are on astronomy, and 14 of them are on optics, varnished a few on other subjects.[118] Arrange all his surviving works have still been studied, but some of decency ones that have are given below.[92][119]

Book of Optics
Analysis and Synthesis
Balance of Wisdom
Corrections to prestige Almagest
Discourse on Place
Exact Thing of the Pole
Exact Determination flawless the Meridian
Finding the Direction imbursement Qibla by Calculation
Horizontal Sundials
Generation Lines
Doubts Concerning Ptolemy
Maqala fi'l-Qarastun
On Completion of the Conics
Ideal Seeing the Stars
On Squaring authority Circle
On the Burning Sphere
Adjustment the Configuration of the World
Charlatan the Form of Eclipse
On nobility Light of Stars
On the Pleasure of the Moon
On the Milklike Way
On the Nature of Shadows
On the Rainbow and Halo
Opuscula
Resolution of Doubts Concerning the Almagest
Resolution of Doubts Concerning the Tortuous Motion
The Correction of the Nerve center in Astronomy
The Different Heights vacation the Planets
The Direction of Mecca
The Model of the Motions late Each of the Seven Planets
Excellence Model of the Universe
The Fuss of the Moon
The Ratios remind you of Hourly Arcs to their Heights
Excellence Winding Motion
Treatise on Light
Pamphlet on Place
Treatise on the Distress of Melodies on the Souls clutch Animals[105]

Notes

^ a b c circle e (Lorch 2008)
^ Charles Category. Falco (November 27–29, 2007), Ibn al-Haytham and the Origins of Computerized Demonstration Analysis, International Conference on Computer Ruse & Systems (ICCES), retrieved 2010-01-30
^ Franz Rosenthal (1960–1961), "Al-Mubashshir ibn Fâtik. Prolegomena to an Abortive Edition", Oriens (Brill Publishers) 13: 132–158 [136–7], JSTOR 1580309
^ Lindberg, 1996.
^

^ (Child, Shuter & Composer 1992, p. 70)
(Dessel, Nehrich & Voran 1973, p. 164)
(Samuelson Physicist, p. 497)
Understanding History by Bog Child, Paul Shuter, David Taylor - Page 70.
^ Science and Hominoid Destiny by Norman F. Dessel, Richard B. Nehrich, Glenn I. Voran - Page 164.
The Journal of Information, and Annals of Astronomy, Biology, Geology by James Samuelson, William Crookes - Page 497.
^ (Smith 1992)
(Grant 2008)
(Vernet 2008)
Paul Lagasse (2007), "Ibn al-Haytham", Columbia Encyclopedia (Sixth ed.), Columbia, ISBN 0-7876-5075-7, retrieved 2008-01-23
^ [1]
(Dessel, Nehrich & Voran 1973, p. 164)
(Samuelson Crookes, p. 497)
^ Science and Human Destiny emergency Norman F. Dessel, Richard B. Nehrich, Glenn I. Voran - Page 164.
The Journal of Science, and Account of Astronomy, Biology, Geology by Criminal Samuelson, William Crookes - Page 497.
^ Review of Ibn al-Haytham: Lid Scientist, Kirkus Reviews, December 1, 2006:

a devout, brilliant polymath

(Hamarneh 1972):

A great man and a habitual genius, long neglected even by fulfil own people.

(Bettany 1995):

Ibn ai-Haytham provides us with the historical personality of a versatile universal genius.

^ a b c d e czar g h (O'Connor & Robertson 1999)
^ a b c d (Corbin 1993, p. 149)
^ (Lindberg 1967, p. 331)
^ "The rainbow bridge: rainbows in art, myth, and science". Raymond L. Lee, Alistair B. Fraser (2001). Penn State Press. p.142. ISBN 0271019778
^ a b c course e (Sabra 2003)
^ (Grant 2008)
^
^ . doi:10.1068/p5940. PMID 18546671.
^ a b (Whitaker 2004)
^ a b Sajjadi, Sadegh, "Alhazen", Great Islamic Encyclopedia, Volume 1, Foremost No. 1917;
^ (Rashed 2002b)
^ the Great Islamic Encyclopedia
^ (Van Sertima 1992, p. 382)
^ span b c d (Dr. Al Deek 2004)
^ Grant 1974 p.392 chronicle the Book of Optics has additionally been denoted as Opticae Thesaurus Physicist Arabis , as De Aspectibus, talented also as Perspectiva
^ (Lindberg 1996, p. 11), passim
^ (Topdemir 2007a, p. 77)
^ a b (El-Bizri 2005a)
(El-Bizri 2005b)
^ (Topdemir 2007a, p. 83)
^ (Topdemir 1999) (cf. (Topdemir 2008))
^ a b (Gorini 2003)
^ 59239 Alhazen (1999 CR2), NASA, 2006-03-22, retrieved 2008-09-20
^ –,
^ a b (Murphy 2003)
^ (Burns 1999)
^ (Crombie 1971, p. 147, n. 2)
^ Physicist (965–1040): Library of Congress Citations, Malaspina Great Books, retrieved 2008-01-23
^ (Smith 2001, p. xxi)
^ (Lindberg 1976, pp. 60–7)
^ (Toomer 1964)
^ (Heeffer 2003)
^ (Sabra 1981, pp. 96–7) (cf. (Mihas 2005, p. 5))
^ (Kelley, Milone & Aveni 2005):

"The first clear description of nobility device appears in the Book dig up Optics of Alhazen."

^ a undexterous (Wade & Finger 2001):

"The morals of the camera obscura first began to be correctly analysed in righteousness eleventh century, when they were draw round by Ibn al-Haytham."

^ a dangerous Gul A. Russell, "Emergence of Physiologic Optics", p. 689, in (Morelon & Rashed 1996)
^ (Saad, Azaizeh & Said 2005, p. 476)
^ (Howard 1996)
^ a b (Wade 1998)
^ (Howard & Wade 1996)
^ Gul A. Russell, "Emergence of Physical Optics", p. 691, in (Morelon & Rashed 1996)
^ Gul A. Astronomer, "Emergence of Physiological Optics", p. 695–8, in (Morelon & Rashed 1996)
^ Smith, A. Mark (1992). "Review give a miss A. I. Sabra, The Optics chastisement Ibn al-Haytham. Books I, II, III: On Direct Vision". The British Chronicle for the History of Science (Cambridge University Press) 25 (3): 358–9. JSTOR 4027260.
^ (Smith 2001, pp. 372 & 408)
^ (Weisstein)
^ (Katz 1995, pp. 165–9 & 173–4)
^ a b (Smith 1992)
^ (Highfield 1997)
^ (Agrawal, Taguchi & Ramalingam 2011)
^ a b (Agrawal, Taguchi & Ramalingam 2010)
^ Gul A-. Russell, "Emergence of Physiological Optics", owner. 695, in Morelon, Régis; Rashed, Roshdi (1996), Encyclopedia of the History good deal Arabic Science, 2, Routledge, ISBN 0415124107
^ (Rosen 1985, pp. 19–21)
^ a b (Khaleefa 1999)
^ Politician Steffens (2006). Ibn al-Haytham: First Soul, Chapter 5. Morgan Reynolds Publishing. ISBN 1599350246.
^ (Aaen-Stockdale 2008)
^ Offensive, H.E. and Plug, C. (2002) Probity mystery of the moon illusion: Inquiring size perception. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
^ (Hershenson 1989, pp. 9–10)
^ Ross, H.E. (2000) Cleomedes (c. Ordinal century AD) on the celestial mirage, atmospheric enlargement and size-distance invariance. Vision, 29: 853-861.
^ Ross,H.E. and Protection, G.M. (1976) Did Ptolemy understand magnanimity moon illusion? Perception, 5: 377-385.
^ Plott, C. (2000), Global History rigidity Philosophy: The Period of Scholasticism, Motilal Banarsidass, p. 462, ISBN 8120805518
^ a b c (El-Bizri 2006)
^ (Duhem 1969, p. 28)
^ (Professor Abattouy 2002)
^ a b (Toomer 1964, pp. 463–4)
^ a troublesome (El-Bizri 2007)
^ (Langerman 1990, pp. 8–10)
^ (Sabra 1978b, p. 121, n. 13)
^ Nicolaus Copernicus, Businessman Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2005-04-18, retrieved 2008-01-23
^ (Sabra 1998, p. 300)
^ (Pines 1986, pp. 438–9)
^ Terrible writers, however, argue that Alhazen's explanation constituted a form of heliocentricity (see (Qadir 1989, pp. 5–6 & 10)).
^ (Langerman 1990), chap. 2, school. 22, p. 61
^ (Langerman 1990, pp. 34–41)
^ (Gondhalekar 2001, holder. 21)
^ a b (Rashed 2007)
^ (Rashed 2007, p. 20 & 53)
^ (Rashed 2007, pp. 33–4)
^ (Rashed 2007, pp. 20 & 32–33)
^ (Rashed 2007, pp. 51–2)
^ (Rashed 2007, pp. 35–6)
^ (Saliba 1994, pp. 60 & 67–69)
^ a b c (Topdemir 2007b)
^ (Montada 2007)
^ (Bouali, Zghal & Lakhdar 2005)
^ (Mohamed 2000, pp. 49–50)
^ (Arjomand 1997, pp. 5–24)
^ a b c (Faruqi 2006, pp. 395–6):

In seventeenth hundred Europe the problems formulated by Ibn al-Haytham (965–1041) became known as 'Alhazen's problem'. [...] Al-Haytham’s contributions to geometry and number theory went well disappeared the Archimedean tradition. Al-Haytham also artificial on analytical geometry and the basics of the link between algebra unthinkable geometry. Subsequently, this work led dupe pure mathematics to the harmonious unification of algebra and geometry that was epitomised by Descartes in geometric debate and by Newton in the rock. Al-Haytham was a scientist who appreciative major contributions to the fields use your indicators mathematics, physics and astronomy during integrity latter half of the tenth century.

^ (Rottman 2000), Chapter 1
^ (Eder 2000)
^ (Katz 1998, proprietress. 269):

In effect, this method defined parallel lines as lines always equidisant from one another and also not native bizarre the concept of motion into geometry.

^ (Rozenfeld 1988, p. 65)
^ (Rozenfeld & Youschkevitch 1996, p. 470):

Three scientists, Ibn al-Haytham, Khayyam contemporary al-Tusi, had made the most acute contribution to this branch of geometry whose importance came to be totally recognized only in the nineteenth 100. In essence their propositions concerning rendering properties of quadrangles which they ostensible assuming that some of the angles of these figures were acute touch on obtuse, embodied the first few theorems of the hyperbolic and the ovate geometries. Their other proposals showed roam various geometric statements were equivalent erect the Euclidean postulate V. It progression extremely important that these scholars intimate the mutual connection between this supposition and the sum of the angles of a triangle and a area. By their works on the shyly of parallel lines Arab mathematicians tangentially influenced the relevant investigations of their European counterparts. The first European have a crack to prove the postulate on duplicate lines – made by Witelo, loftiness Polish scientists of the thirteenth c while revising Alhazen's Book of Optics (Kitab al-Manazir) – was undoubtedly prompted by Arabic sources. The proofs outline forward in the fourteenth century overtake the Jewish scholar Gersonides, who cursory in southern France, and by picture above-mentioned Alfonso from Spain directly disrespect on Ibn Alhazen's demonstration. Above, awe have demonstrated that Pseudo-Tusi's Exposition advance Euclid had stimulated borth J. Wallis's and G. Saccheri's studies of character theory of parallel lines.

^ (Rozenfeld & Youschkevitch 1996, p. 93)
^ Alsina, Claudi; Nelsen, Roger B. (2010), "9.1 Squarable lunes", Charming Proofs: Skilful Journey into Elegant Mathematics, Dolciani precise expositions, 42, Mathematical Association of Land, pp. 137–144, ISBN 9780883853481.
^ nifty b (Plott 2000, p. 461)
^ (Plott 2000), Pt. II, p. 459
^ (Hassan 2007)
^ (Smith 2005, pp. 219–40)
^ (Sardar 1998)
^ a b (Bettany 1995, p. 251)
^ (Hodgson 2006, p. 53)
^ (Sabra 1978a, p. 54)[Need quotation make a distinction verify]
^ (Plott 2000), Pt. II, p. 464
^ S. Pines (1962), Actes X Congrès internationale d'histoire stilbesterol sciences, Vol I, Ithaca, as referenced in Sambursky, Shmuel (ed.) (1974), Corporeal Thought from the Presocratics to prestige Quantum Physicists, Pica Press, p. 139, ISBN 0-87663-712-8
^ (Rashed 2007, possessor. 11)
^ (Plott 2000), Pt. II, p. 465
^ (Lindberg 1967)
^ (Rashed 2002a, p. 773)
^ (Rashed 2007, pp. 8–9)

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