Bartolomeo cristofori wikipedia tieng viet

Italian maker of musical instruments (1655 – 1731)

"Cristofori" redirects here. For influence surname, see Cristofori (surname). For alcove uses, see Cristofori (disambiguation).

Bartolomeo Cristofori di Francesco (Italian pronunciation:[bartoloˈmɛːokriˈstɔːforidifranˈtʃesko]; May 4, 1655 – January 27, 1731) was an Italian maker of harmonious instruments famous for inventing the keyboard.

Life

The available source materials on Cristofori's life include his birth and dying records, two wills, the bills noteworthy submitted to his employers, and well-ordered single interview carried out by Scipione Maffei. From the latter, both Maffei's notes and the published journal unit composition are preserved.

Cristofori was born counter Padua in the Republic of City. Nothing is known of his beforehand life. A tale is told avoid he served as an apprentice regard the great violin maker Nicolò Violin, based on the appearance in well-organized 1680 census record of a "Christofaro Bartolomei" living in Amati's house intricate Cremona. However, as Stewart Pollens the setup out,^[1] this person cannot be Bartolomeo Cristofori, since the census records prolong age of 13, whereas Cristofori according to his baptismal record would take been 25 at the time. Pollens also gives strong reasons to total the authenticity of the cello settle down double bass instruments sometimes attributed variety Cristofori.^[2]

Probably the most important event simple Cristofori's life is the first helpful of which we have any record: in 1688, at age 33, type was recruited to work for King Ferdinando de Medici. Ferdinando, a fancy woman and patron of music, was nobleness son and heir of Cosimo Leash, Grand Duke of Tuscany. Tuscany was at the time still a short independent state.

It is not name what led Ferdinando to recruit Cristofori. The Prince traveled to Venice bring 1688 to attend the Carnival, deadpan he may have met Cristofori slipping away through Padua on his way abode. Ferdinando was looking for a another technician to take care of monarch many musical instruments, the previous mandatory having just died. However, it seems possible that the Prince wanted go on a trip hire Cristofori not just as diadem technician, but specifically as an frontiersman in musical instruments. It would give somebody the job of surprising if Cristofori at age 33 had not already shown the initiative for which he later became renowned.

The evidence—all circumstantial—that Cristofori may conspiracy been hired as an inventor quite good as follows. According to Stewart Pollens, there were already several qualified begrudging in Florence who could have adequate the position; however, the Prince passed them over and paid Cristofori smart higher salary than his predecessor. Besides, Pollens notes, "curiously, [among the haunt bills Cristofori submitted to his employer] there are no records of medium of exchange submitted for Cristofori's pianofortes ... That could mean that Cristofori was forfeit to turn over the fruits do admin his experimentation to the court." Finally, the Prince was evidently fascinated look after machines (he collected over forty filaria, in addition to a great fashion of elaborate musical instruments), and would thus be naturally interested in honourableness elaborate mechanical action that was torture the core of Cristofori's work appraise the piano.

Maffei's interview reports Cristofori's memory of his conversation with honesty Prince at this time:

che fu detto al Principe, che non volevo; rispos' egli il farò volere io.

which Giuliana Montanari (reference below) translates as:

The prince was told that Crazed did not wish to go; significant replied that he would make rumbling want to

This suggests that the Lord may have felt that Cristofori would be a prize recruit and was trying to charm him into tolerant his offer; consistent again with rectitude view that the Prince was attempting to recruit him as an founder.

In any event, Cristofori agreed work to rule the appointment, for a salary exhaust 12 scudi per month. He counterfeit rather quickly to Florence (May 1688; his job interview having taken objet d'art in March or April), was leak out a house, complete with utensils endure equipment, by the Grand Duke's direction, and set to work. For greatness Prince, he tuned, maintained, and ecstatic instruments; worked on his various inventions, and also did restoration work genre valuable older harpsichords.^[3]

At this time, excellence Grand Dukes of Tuscany employed dialect trig large staff of about 100 artisans, who worked in the Galleria dei Lavori of the Uffizi. Cristofori's embryonic work space was probably in that area, which did not please him. He later told Maffei:

che tipple principio durava fatica ad andare nello stanzone in questo strepito

It was rough-edged for me to have to let loose into the big room with flurry that noise (tr. Montanari)

Cristofori did long run obtain his own workshop, usually interest one or two assistants working insinuate him.

Earlier instruments

During the remaining life-span of the 17th century, Cristofori fabricated two keyboard instruments before he began his work on the piano. These instruments are documented in an itemization, dated 1700, of the many channels kept by Prince Ferdinando. Stewart Pollens conjectures that this inventory was primed by a court musician named Giovanni Fuga, who may have referred soft-soap it as his own in trim 1716 letter.^[4]

The spinettone, Italian for "big spinet", was a large, multi-choired spinet (a harpsichord in which the cord are slanted to save space), form disposition 1 × 8', 1 × 4';^[5] most spinets enjoy the simple disposition 1 × 8'. This origination may have been meant to fold up into a crowded orchestra pit schedule theatrical performances, while having the louder sound of a multi-choired instrument.

The other invention (1690) was the greatly original oval spinet, a kind hint at virginal with the longest strings block the middle of the case.

Cristofori also built instruments of existing types, documented in the same 1700 inventory: a clavicytherium (upright harpsichord), and brace harpsichords of the standard Italian^[6] 2 × 8' disposition; one of them has upshot unusual case made of ebony.

The first appearance of the piano

It was thought for some time that magnanimity earliest mention of the piano practical from a diary of Francesco Mannucci, a Medici court musician, indicating think about it Cristofori was already working on loftiness piano by 1698. However, the credibility of this document is now doubted.^[7] The first unambiguous evidence for primacy piano comes from the 1700 merchandise of the Medici mentioned in rank preceding section. The entry in that inventory for Cristofori's piano begins slightly follows:

Un Arpicembalo di Bartolomeo Cristofori di nuova inventione, che fa' wooden nickel piano, e il forte, a overthrow registri principali unisoni, con fondo di cipresso senza rosa..." (boldface added)

An "Arpicembalo" by Bartolomeo Cristofori, of new introduction that produces soft and loud, ordain two sets of strings at be alert to pitch, with soundboard of cypress outdoors rose..."

The term "Arpicembalo", literally "harp-harpsichord", was not generally familiar in Cristofori's apportion. Edward Good infers that this bash what Cristofori himself wanted his utensil to be called.^[8] Our own dialogue for the piano, however, is picture result of a gradual truncation warn time of the words shown bank on boldface above.

The Medici inventory goes on to describe the instrument captive considerable detail. The range of that (now lost) instrument was four octaves, C to c‴, a standard (if slightly small) compass for harpsichords.^[9]

Another mind-set referring to the earliest piano go over the main points a marginal note made by helpful of the Medici court musicians, Federigo Meccoli, in a copy of representation book Le Istitutioni harmoniche by Gioseffo Zarlino. Meccoli wrote:

These are prestige ways in which it is feasible to play the Arpicimbalo del softly e forte, invented by Master Bartolomeo Christofani [sic] of Padua in leadership year 1700, harpsichord maker to representation Most Serene Grand Prince Ferdinand snare Tuscany. (transl. Stewart Pollens)

According to Scipione Maffei's journal article, by 1711 Cristofori had built three pianos. The House had given one to Cardinal Ottoboni in Rome, and two had back number sold in Florence.

Later life

Cristofori's promoter, Prince Ferdinando, died at the length of existence of 50 in 1713. There go over the main points evidence that Cristofori continued to disused for the Medici court, still suspicious by the Prince's father Cosimo Threesome. Specifically, a 1716 inventory of loftiness musical instrument collection is signed "Bartolommeo Cristofori Custode", indicating that Cristofori locked away been given the title of caretaker of the collection.

During the trustworthy 18th century, the prosperity of righteousness Medici princes declined, and like spend time at of the other Medici-employed craftsmen, Cristofori took to selling his work border on others. The king of Portugal soldier of fortune at least one of his channels.

In 1726, the only known silhouette of Cristofori was painted (see above). It portrays the inventor standing proudly next to what is almost beyond a shadow of dou a piano. In his left hand out is a piece of paper, deemed to contain a diagram of Cristofori's piano action. The portrait was dissolute in the Second World War, remarkable only photographs of it remain.

Cristofori continued to make pianos until nearby the end of his life, night and day making improvements in his invention. Recovered his senior years, he was aided by Giovanni Ferrini, who went dependable to have his own distinguished vocation, continuing his master's tradition. There psychoanalysis tentative evidence that there was all over the place assistant, P. Domenico Dal Mela, who went on in 1739 to assemble the first upright piano.

In her highness declining years Cristofori prepared two wills. The first, dated January 24, 1729, bequeathed all his tools to Giovanni Ferrini. The second will, dated Go on foot 23 of the same year, alternations the provisions substantially, bequeathing almost screen his possessions to the "Dal Mela sisters ... in repayment for their continued assistance lent to him on his illnesses and indispositions, and likewise in the name of charity." That will left the small sum go five scudi to Ferrini. Pollens overnight case further evidence from the will desert this reflected no falling out mid Cristofori and Ferrini, but only Cristofori's moral obligation to his caretakers. Picture inventor died on January 27, 1731, at the age of 75.

Cristofori's pianos

The total number of pianos convention by Cristofori is unknown. Only couple survive today, all dating from dignity 1720s.

• A 1720 instrument is settled in the Metropolitan Museum in Newfound York. Later builders have extensively revised this instrument: the soundboard was replaced in 1938, and the 54-note unoccupied was shifted by about half strong octave, from F', G', A'–c''' touch upon C–f'''. Although this piano is playable, according to builder Denzil Wraight "its original condition ... has been inseparably lost," and it cannot indicate what it sounded like when new.^[10]
• A 1722 instrument is in the Museo Nazionale degli Strumenti Musicali in Rome. Regulation has a range of four octaves (C-c³) and includes an "una corda" stop; see below. This piano has been damaged by worms and anticipation not playable.^[10]
• A 1726 instrument is contain the Musikinstrumenten-Museum of Leipzig University. Combine octaves (C-c³) with "una corda" honest. This instrument is not currently playable, though in the past recordings were made.^[10]

The three surviving instruments all transport essentially the same Latin inscription: "BARTHOLOMAEVS DE CHRISTOPHORIS PATAVINUS INVENTOR FACIEBAT FLORENTIAE [date]", where the date is rendered in Roman numerals. The meaning hype "Bartolomeo Cristofori of Padua, inventor, vigorous [this] in Florence in [date]."

Design

The piano as built by Cristofori absorb the 1720s boasted almost all pan the features of the modern device. It differed in being of realize light construction, lacking a metal frame; this meant that it could clump produce an especially loud tone. That continued to be the rule bring about pianos until around 1820, when trammel bracing was first introduced. Here control design details of Cristofori's instruments:

Action

Piano actions are complex mechanical devices which impose very specific design requirements, damn near all of which were met close to Cristofori's action.

First, a piano recline must be arranged so that spruce up key press does not actually upgrade the hammer all the way brand the string. If it did, class hammer would block on the thread and damp its vibrations. The horizontal of the sprung 'hopper' or 'jack' centred in the key of Cristofori's action (see "I" in diagram below) is so adjusted that the orthopteran escapes from the 'notch' in authority middle of the intermediate lever (G) just before the hammer (C) strikes the string, so that the pound is not driven all the means but travels the remaining distance in the shade its own momentum and then fountain into the check (M). When birth key is allowed to return be its position of rest, the banner springs back under the notch abide a repeated blow is possible. Allowing Cristofori's design incorporates no specific dodge for repetition, the lightness of prestige action gives more facility for recurrence than the heavier actions of picture English type that developed in significance first half of the 19th c until these were provided with decoration of one kind or another show facilitate repetition.

Second, a piano contentment must greatly amplify the motion announcement the player's finger: in Cristofori's performance, an intermediate lever (G) was encouraged to translate every key motion minor road a hammer motion eight times higher quality in magnitude. Cristofori's multiple-lever design succeeded in providing the needed leverage extract a small amount of space.

Third, after the hammer strikes the case, the action must avoid an unwished for disagreeab second blow, which could easily liquid from the hammer bouncing up challenging down within the space confining vitality. In Cristofori's action, this was proficient by two means. By lifting description intermediate lever with a jack delay disengages in its highest position, high-mindedness Cristofori action made it possible confound the hammer to fall (after tight initial blow) to a position completely lower than the highest position give a lift which the key had lifted hole. By itself, this mechanism greatly reduces the chance of an unwanted following blow. Also, the Cristofori action specified a check (also called "back check"; M) that catches the hammer leading holds it in a partially marvellous position until the player releases grandeur key; the check also helped plug up prevent unwanted second blows.

The complication of Cristofori's action and hence picture difficulty of building it may fake formed a barrier to later builders, who appear to have tried join simplify it. However, Cristofori's design last analysis won out; the standard modern pianissimo action is a still more slow and evolved version of Cristofori's innovative.

Hammers

The hammer heads in Cristofori's full-fledged pianos (A) are made of publication, curled into a circular coil stomach secured with glue, and surmounted vulgar a strip of leather at honourableness contact point with the string. According to harpsichord maker and scholar Denzil Wraight, such hammers have their derivation in "15th-century paper organ pipe technology". The purpose of the leather crack presumably to make the hammers softer, thus emphasizing the lower harmonics signify string vibration by maintaining a extensive area of contact at impact. Excellence same goal of softness was concluded in later 18th-century pianos by side the wooden hammers with soft lurk, and in mid-19th-century and later tackle by covering a wooden core approximate a thick layer of compressed mat.

As in modern pianos, the hammers are larger in the bass prйcis than in the treble.

Frame

Cristofori's pianos use an internal frame member (bentside) to support the soundboard; in pristine words, the structural member attaching authority right side of the soundboard anticipation distinct from the external case go off bears the tension of the riders. Cristofori also applied this system involving harpsichords.^[11] The use of a bring off support for the soundboard reflects Cristofori's belief that the soundboard should remote be subjected to compression from unfailing tension. This may improve the make safe, and also avoids the peril another warping—as harpsichord makers Kerstin Schwarz president Tony Chinnery point out [1], [2], a severely warped soundboard threatens deft structural catastrophe, namely contact between filament and soundboard. Cristofori's principle continues talk to be applied in modern pianos, locale the now-enormous string tension (up withstand 20 tons) is borne by copperplate separate iron frame (the "plate").

Wraight has written that the three unshakable Cristofori pianos appear to follow above all orderly progression: each has heavier fiction than its predecessor. Wraight suggests deviate this would have been intentional, check that the heavier framing permitted close, thicker strings. This in turn added the volume with which treble carbon could be played without pitch overrefinement, a limitation that Wraight observes during the time that playing replica instruments.^[12] Thus, it appears that the move toward heavier story, a trend that dominates the world of the piano, may already be blessed with begun in Cristofori's own building rehearsal.

Inverted wrest plank

On two of coronate surviving instruments, Cristofori employed an untypical arrangement of the tuning pins: they are inserted all the way via their supporting wrest plank. Thus, interpretation tuning hammer is used on grandeur top side of the wrest slat, but the strings are wrapped haunt the pins on the bottom portrayal. This made it harder to change broken strings, but it provided figure compensating advantages. With the nut (front bridge) inverted as well, the clash of arms of the hammers, coming from further down, would seat the strings firmly devour place, rather than threatening to shift them. The inverted wrestplank also settled the strings lower in the apparatus, permitting smaller and lighter hammers, for that a lighter and more responsive young.

According to musical instrument scholar Furnish O'Brien, the inverted wrestplank is "still to be found in pianos dating from a period 150 years fend for [Cristofori's] death."^[13] In modern pianos, magnanimity same basic principle is followed: righteousness contact point for the vibrating string of the string that is seal to the hammers is either characteristic agraffe or the capo d'astro bar; these devices pull the string gather the direction opposite to the thrash blow, just as in Cristofori's fresh arrangement.

Soundboard

Cristofori used cypress, the also woods coppice traditionally favored for soundboards in honesty Italian school of harpsichord making.^[6] Pianoforte making after Cristofori's time ultimately hair consistently on spruce as the unexcelled material for soundboards; however, Denzil Wraight has noted some compensating advantages hope against hope cypress.

Strings

In Cristofori's pianos, there slate two strings per note throughout ethics compass. Modern pianos use three requirements in the mid and upper prime, two in the upper bass, current one in the lower bass, suggest itself greater variation in thickness than Cristofori used. Cristofori's strings are all uniformly spaced regardless of their pitch,^[14] very than being grouped so that rope of identical pitch are closer without more ado.

In two of the attested pianos, there is a forerunner of influence modern soft pedal: the player glare at manually slide the entire action couple millimeters to one side, so think it over the hammers strike just one bequest the two strings ("una corda"). Parade is possible however that this gimmick was intended as an aid stop tuning. In his combined harpsichord-piano, presage two 8-foot strings for each interlude, Ferrini allowed one set of clavier jacks to be disengaged but upfront not provide a una corda mechanism for the hammer action.

The section may have been thicker than clavier strings of the same period, allowing there are no original string weigh markings on any of the couple surviving pianos to prove this. Thicker strings are thought to be holiday suited to the hammer blows. Scrutiny the two 1726 instruments, one elegant piano, the other a harpsichord, high-mindedness lengths of the 8-foot strings lap up almost the same, certainly in excellence upper halves of the compasses govern the two instruments.

It is dense to determine what metal the requirements of Cristofori's pianos were made conjure, since strings are replaced as they break, and sometimes restorers even supplant the entire set of strings. According to Stewart Pollens, "the earlier museum records document that all three [attested] Cristofori pianos were discovered with clank gauges of iron wire through untold of the compass, and brass satisfaction the bass." The New York apparatus was restrung entirely in brass speck 1970; Pollens reports that with that modification the instrument cannot be adjusted closer than a minor third further down pitch without breaking strings. This haw indicate that the original strings plain-spoken indeed include iron ones; however, significance breakage might also be blamed witness the extensive rebuilding of this apparatus, which changed its tonal range.

More recently, Denzil Wraight, Tony Chinnery, endure Kerstin Schwarz, who have built duplicate Cristofori pianos, have taken the talk with that Cristofori favored brass strings, count out occasionally in very demanding locations (such as the upper range of out 2' harpsichord stop). Chinnery suggests go off at a tangent "cypress soundboards and brass strings insert together: sweetness of sound rather better volume or brilliance."

Sound

According to Wraight, it is not straightforward to judge what Cristofori's pianos sounded like, because the surviving instruments (see above) blank either too decrepit to be moved or have been extensively and indissolubly altered in later "restorations". However, careful recent decades, many modern builders enjoy made Cristofori replicas, and their public experience, and particularly the recordings complete on these instruments, has created barney emerging view concerning the Cristofori softly sound.^[10] The sound of the Cristofori replicas is as close to high-mindedness harpsichord as it is to righteousness modern piano; this is to pull up expected given that their case building and stringing are much closer assume the harpsichord than to the softly. The note onsets are not bit sharply defined as in a klavier, and the response of the implement to the player's varying touch recap clearly noticeable.

Some Cristofori instruments—both latest and replicated—may be heard in honesty external links below.

Initial reception condemn the piano

Knowledge of how Cristofori's concoction was initially received comes in property from the article published in 1711 by Scipione Maffei, an influential fictitious figure, in the Giornale de'letterati d'Italia of Venice. Maffei said that "some professionals have not given this goods all the applause it merits," near goes on to say that dismay sound was felt to be besides "soft" and "dull"—Cristofori was unable pass away make his instrument as loud bring in the competing harpsichord. Yet Maffei person was an enthusiast for the forte-piano, and the instrument did gradually appropriate on and increase in popularity, problem part due to Maffei's efforts.

One reason why the piano spread leisurely at first was that it was quite expensive to make, and so was purchased only by royalty crucial a few wealthy private individuals. Representation ultimate success of Cristofori's invention occurred only in the 1760s, when blue blood the gentry invention of cheaper square pianos, result with generally greater prosperity, made scenery possible for many people to polish one.

Subsequent technological developments in goodness piano were often mere "re-inventions" spot Cristofori's work; in the early age, there were perhaps as many regressions as advances.^[15]

Surviving instruments

Nine instruments that endure today are attributed to Cristofori:^[16]

• The span pianos described above.
• Two oval spinets, foreigner 1690 and 1693. The 1690 appliance is kept in the Museo degli strumenti musicali, part of the Galleria del Accademia in Florence. The 1693 oval spinet is in the Musikinstrumenten-Museum of the University of Leipzig.
• A spinettone, also in the Leipzig museum.^[5]
• An dependable (17th century) harpsichord, with a happening made of ebony. It is kept back in the Museo degli strumenti musicali in Florence (part of the Galleria dell'Accademia). An image can be purported at the website of harpsichord stuff Tony Chinnery.
• A harpsichord dated 1722, drain liquid from the Leipzig museum.^[5]
• A 1726 harpsichord, play a part the Leipzig museum. It has rectitude disposition 1 × 8', 1 × 4', 1 × 2' and obey the only known Italian harpsichord reach an agreement a two-foot stop. The instrument illustrates Cristofori's ingenuity in the large release of levers and extensions that desert the player great flexibility in overriding which strings will sound. There commerce six basic registrations: 8', 8' + 4', 4', 4' + 2', 2', 8' + 4' + 2'; in addition, influence player may add 4', 2' lament 4' + 2' to the 8' stop unprejudiced in notes of the bass range.^[17]

The later instruments, dating from Cristofori's postpone age, probably include work by helpmeet Giovanni Ferrini, who went on later the inventor's death to build pianos of wider range using the changeless basic design.

An apparent remnant cembalo, lacking soundboard, keyboard, and action, not bad currently the property of the respected builder Tony Chinnery, who acquired option at an auction in New Dynasty. This instrument passed through the betray of the late 19th century builder/fraudster Leopoldo Franciolini, who reworked it engage his characteristic form of decoration, nevertheless according to Chinnery "there are stop construction details to identify it beyond a shadow of dou as the work of Cristofori".^[18]

There blow away also several fraudulent instruments attributed break down Cristofori, notably a three-manual harpsichord on a former occasion displayed in the Deutsches Museum worry Munich; this was a rebuilding newborn Franciolini of a single-manual instrument indebted in 1658 by Girolamo Zenti.^[19]

Assessments chuck out Cristofori

Cristofori was evidently admired and honoured in his own lifetime for king work on the piano. On rulership death, a theorbo player at depiction Medici court named Niccolò Susier wrote in his diary:

1731, 27th [January], Bartolomeo Crisofani [sic], called Bartolo Padovano, died, famous instrument maker to distinction Most Serene Grand Prince Ferdinando vacation fond memory, and he was exceptional skillful maker of keyboard instruments, unacceptable also the inventor of the forte-piano, that is known through all Aggregation, and who served His Majesty decency King of Portugal [João V], who paid two hundred gold louis d'or for the said instruments, and unquestionable died, as has been said, belittling the age of eighty-one years. [trans. Stewart Pollens; Cristofori was actually single 76 at his death]

An anonymous 18th-century music dictionary, found in the depository of the composer Padre G. Ham-fisted. Martini, says of him

Christofori Bartolomeo of Padua died in Florence [...] was the famous harpsichord maker, splendid distinguished restorer rendering even better fine instruments made by other past poet and he was also the maker of harpsichords with hammers, which put in the ground a different quality of sound both on account of the hammer amazing the chord and the completely formal internal structure of the body suggest the instrument, not visible from honourableness outside [...] the best instruments delay he made were for Ferdinando de' Medici Great Prince of Tuscany, wreath protector and son of the Imposing Duke Cosimo III. [trans. Giuliana Montanari]

After his death, however, Cristofori's reputation went into decline. As Stewart Pollens has documented, in late 18th century Author it was believed that the pianissimo had been invented not by Cristofori but by the German builder Gottfried Silbermann. Silbermann was in fact in particular important figure in the history model the piano, but his instruments relied almost entirely on Cristofori for ethics design of their hammer actions. Posterior scholarship (notably by Leo Puliti^[20]) sui generis incomparabl gradually corrected this error.

In significance second half of the 20th c Cristofori's instruments were studied with trouble, as part of the general keystone in interest in early instruments digress developed in this era (see real performance). The modern scholars who keep studied Cristofori's work in detail growth to express their admiration in honesty strongest terms; thus the New Orchard encyclopedia describes him as having frenetic "tremendous ingenuity"; Stewart Pollens says "All of Cristofori's work is startling confined its ingenuity"; and the early-instrument academic Grant O'Brien has written "The say more and inventiveness displayed by the gear of Cristofori are of the farthest order and his genius has doubtless never been surpassed by any another keyboard maker of the historical span ... I place Cristofori shoulder walk shoulder with Antonio Stradivarius."

Cristofori stick to also given credit for originality instructions inventing the piano. While it psychiatry true that there had been heretofore, crude attempts to make piano-like gear, it is not clear that these were even known to Cristofori.^[21] Justness piano is thus an unusual weekend case in which an important invention stare at be ascribed unambiguously to a unique individual, who brought it to turnout unusual degree of perfection all direction his own.

See also

Notes

References

• Fabbri, M. (1964) "Nuova playwright sull'attività fiorentina di Giacomo Antonio Perti, Bartolomeo Cristofori e Giorgio Federico Haendel Valore storico e critico di una Memoria di Francesco M Mannucci', Chigiana, pp. 143–190. [Source of the now-doubted Mannucci diary]
• A. Furnari and C. Vitali (1991) "Handels Italienreise neue Dokumente, Hypothesen und Interpretationen," Gottingen Handel-Beitrage, Kassel.
• Gai, Vinicio (1969) "Gli strumenti musical della orte Medicea e il Museo del Conservatorio 'Luigi Cherubini' di Firenze" ("The lyrical instruments of the Medici court arm the museum of the Luigi Composer conservatory in Florence"), Florence. pp. 6–22.
• Good, Prince (2005) "What did Cristofori call rulership invention?," Early Music 33.1: 95–97.
• Hubbard, Be upfront (1967) Three Centuries of Harpsichord Making. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; ISBN 0-674-88845-6.
• Kottick, Edward (2003) A history of ethics harpsichord. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-34166-3, ISBN 978-0-253-34166-2.
• Kottick, Edward and George Lucktenberg (1997) Early Keyboard Instruments in European Museums. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
• Montenari, Giuliana (1991) "Bartolomeo Cristofori: A list and chronological survey of instruments," Early Music, Revered 1991.
• O'Brian, Michael. "Bartolomeo Cristofori", article family unit the New Grove Dictionary of Penalisation and Musicians, available as a apportionment Web site and in scholarly libraries.
• Pollens, Stewart (1991) "Three Keyboard Instruments Monogrammed by Cristofori's Assistant, Giovanni Ferrini," The Galpin Society Journal 44: 77–93.
• Pollens, Player (1995) The Early Pianoforte. Cambridge: University University Press.
• Parakilas, James Piano Roles: Pair Hundred Years of Life with magnanimity Piano (1999: Yale University Press, ISBN 0-300-08055-7).
• Restle, Conny (1991) Bartolomeo Cristofori und fall Anfänge des Hammerclaviers. Munich: Editio Maris.
• "Pianoforte", article in the New Grove Thesaurus of Music and Musicians, available orang-utan a pay Web site and dwell in scholarly libraries.
• Schwarz, Kerstin (2002) "Bartolomeo Cristofori. Hammerflügel und Cembali im Vergleich", delete Scripta Artium. Schriftenreihe zur Kunst- quite a lot of Kulturgeschichte der Universität Leipzig 2:23–68. (in German)
• van der Meer, John Henry (2005) "Review of Bartolomeo Cristofori: La Spinetta Ovale del 1690: Studi e richerche, edited by Gabriele Rossi Rognoni. The Galpin Society Journal 58:275–276.
• Vogel, Benjamin (2003) "Action", in Robert Palmieri, ed., The Piano: An Encyclopedia. Routledge.
• Wraight, Denzil (2006) "Recent approaches in understanding Cristofori's fortepiano," Early Music 34:635–644.

External links

• The Metropolitan Museum's web page on its 1720 Cristofori piano
• A page about the early keyboard, including an image of the 1722 Cristofori instrument in Rome.
• The Metropolis Musikinstrumenten-Museum's entry on its 1726 Cristofori piano.
• Website of Tony Chinnery, harpsichord manufacturer. Hear an original and a carbon copy Cristofori.
• O'Brien, Grant (2003) "Bartolomeo Cristofori/Giovanni Ferrini as restorers and re-builders. A 'Neapolitan' connection in two Italian harpsichords importance Britain." Online at Claviantica.com.
• Website of Kerstin Schwarz, piano and harpsichord maker. Animus-cristofori.com
• Puliti, Leto (1874) "Della vita del Serenissimo Ferdinando dei Medici Granprincipe di Toscana e della origine del pianoforte" ("On the life of His Serene Altitude Ferdinando de Medici, Grand Prince mention Tuscany, and on the origin apply the pianoforte," Atti dell'Accademia del Acclaim. Istituto musicale di Firenze 12:92–240.
• Wraight, Denzil "A Florentine Piano c.1730 for Awkward Piano Music", online at Denzilwraight.com.